Экономика Великобритании и диалектика её развития

Международное разделение труда реализуется через внешнюю торговлю. Ее динамика в 80-е гг. отличалась крайней неравномерностью. Доля страны в мировом экспорте сократилась с 5,7 до 5,2% за 1980-1992 гг. Многие причины снижения роли Великобритании в мировой торговле связаны с отставанием в качестве, техническом совершенстве товаров, а также с характером сбыта, из-за недостаточного внимания к маркетингу многих британских компаний. По уровню конкурентоспособности британские компании уступают германским и 1,7 раза, датским -- в 1,5, голландским ~ в 1,4 раза. Основная часть экспорта осуществляется крупными компаниями. Сто крупнейших фирм обеспечивают 47% промышленного экспорта (1992 г.),* и доля их возросла, несмотря на увеличение числа малых и средних компаний в стране.

В структуре экспорта произошли сдвиги, связанные с увеличением доли минерального топлива, химии и сельскохозяйственных товаров и напитков. В машиностроении более быстрыми темпами развивался экспорт авиационной, техники, особенно реактивных двигателей, научных приборов, электронной техники, а также насосно-компрессорного оборудования. По экспорту продукции химической промышленности Великобритания занимает третье место в мире, уступая ФРГ и США. В структуре экспорта преобладает продукция топкого химического синтеза - около 50%. Страна выступает четвертым в мире экспортером медикаментов. Важное место во внешней торговле занимает экспорт оружия и военного снаряжения.

Экспортируется 1/4 всего производства оружия и военной техники. По объему его вывоза она уступает США, Франции.

Благодаря оздоровлению финансового положения промышленных и торговых компаний их задолженность по коммерческим кредитам, составлявшая пять лет назад 4% ВВП, к первой половине 1994 г. была ликвидирована. Сначала 1991 г. компании выплатили банкам более 19 млрд.ф.ст. Доля долгов в общих финансовых обязательствах резко упала, а текущая ликвидность выросла. Общая рыночная стоимость английских компаний к середине 1994 г. увеличилась в 1,5 раза по сравнению с 1990 г. Прибыли промышленных и торговых компаний в 1993 и 1994 гг. выросли соответственно на 13,5 и 16%.

Росту деловой активности в значительной мере способствовало и повышение зарубежного спроса на английские товары, вызвавшее настоящий экспортный бум в 1994 г. В отличие от достаточно умеренных темпов роста импорта, составивших 5,4 против 4% в 1993 г., рост экспорта превысил 10% (в страны Европейского союза- 14%). В итоге дефицит торгового баланса снизился без учета вывоза североморской нефти до 3,1 млрд.ф.ст. по сравнению с 3,6 млрд. в 1993 г. Вместе с увеличением прибылей от зарубежных инвестиций это улучшило состояние платежного баланса.

Экономический подъем в стране будет продолжаться и в 1997 г. Прежде всего благодаря увеличению совокупных личных доходов в результате роста занятости и заработной платы. Негативный эффект повышения налогов, который в 1994 г. привел, по некоторым оценкам, к увеличению розничных цен на 0,9% в 1996 г., исчерпал себя. Согласно расчетам Конфедерации британской промышленности, сокращение подоходного налога на 4 млрд.ф.ст. повысит потребительские доходы населения на 0,8%. По данным КБП, в 1997 г. темпы роста промышленности останутся высокими, резко возрастет загрузка производственных мощностей.

Противоречия экономики и политики современной Великобритании развиваются под решающим воздействием глобальных изменений. Эти изменения являются общими для развитых капиталистических стран. Вместе с тем они носят специфический характер, обусловленный всей новой и новейшей историей Великобритании.

8. Библиография

1. Ушаков Л.Д. Экономический подьем Великобритании 90-х гг.Москва. 1995г.

2. Князев В. Г., Попов Б. В. Налоги в Англии // Финансы. 1994.

3. Родионова В. М. Стратегия ТНК. М.: Наука. 1993. Гл. 3.

4. Великобритания (Экономика и политика стран современного капитализма). М., 1972. Ответственные редакторы Пронин С. В., Хссин Е. С.

5. Виноградов Г. Б. Очерки английской историографии нового и новейшего времени. Л., 1975.

6. Волков Ф. Д. Великобритания: трудные времена. М„ 1977.

7. Глушков В. П. Корпорации, государство, экономика. Английский государственно-монополистический капитализм на пороге 70-х годов. М., 1972.

8. Дробозина Л. А., Можайское О. В. Финансовая и денежно-кредитная система Англии. М„ 1976.

9. Журков А. А., Фаминский И. П. Великобритания и проблемы западноевропейской интеграции. М.. 1970.

10. Западная Европа в современном мире. В 2-х томах. Редакционная коллегия: Шенаев В. Н„ Мельников Д. Е„ Майер Л. (ГДР). М., 1979.

11. Рыжиков В. А. СССР-Великобритания: развитие отношений (60-70-е годы). М„ 1977.

12. Солодкин Р. Г. Англия на мировых рынках. М., 1969.

13. Трухиповспий В. Г. Унистон Черчилль. Политическая биография. М., 1977.

14. Трухановский В. Г., Капитонова II. К. Советско-английские отношения, 1945-1978. М„ 1979.

15. Чеклин В. П. СССР - Великобритания: развитие деловых связей. Под ред. Манжуло А. Н. М„ 1979.

16. Tlio Military Balance 1979-1990. London 1990 p 94-95 - New Society, October 4, 1990, p. 8-9.

17. Annual Abstract of Statistics .Tom' Britisb Business, January 25, 1996, p. 54, 58.

18. Trade and Industry, June 25 1996 p 800- 802;

19. Lees F. International Banking and Finance. London, 1994.

20. The Banker, February 1995, p. 110-123.

21. The World Today, May 1995, p. 200-209.

22. Annual Abstract of StatisLics, I994, p. 113-135.

23. British Journal of Industrial Relations, November 1992 p 371.

24. The Ecouormst, January 2, 1996.

25. Britain's Economic Prospects. Washington-London, 1995.

26. Fortune, May 1994, p. 298.

Britain's Economic and Financial Position Today at Home and Abroad.

Finance and industry of the British economy go hand in hand as industry requires a diversified network of financial institutions to develop successfully. Although Britain's financial power today exceeds that of the country's industrial achievement, the country was for years “the workshop of the world”. It still remains a highly industrialised country but the end of the 20th century saw tendencies for the economic decline. Historically, after two world wars and the loss of its empire Britain found it increasingly difficult to maintain its leading position in Europe. The growing competition from the United States and later Japan aggravated the country's position.Britain struggled to find a balance between the governments intervention in the economy and almost completely free-market economy of the United States. The theories of the great British pre-war economist J. M. Keynes stated that capitalist society could only survive if the government controlled, managed and even planned much of its economy. These ideas failed to get Britain out of the image of a country with quiet market towns linked by steam trains puffing slowly through green meadows. Arrival of Margaret Thatcher, the Conservative prime-minister in office between 1979 and 1990, discarded these theories as completely wrong. Mrs. Thatcher claimed that all controls and regulations of the economy should be removed and a market economy should recover. Her targets were nationalised industries. She refused to assist the struggling enterprises of the coal and steal industries which were slimmed down in order to improve their efficiency. In the steel industry, for example, the workspace was reduced from 130000 people to 50000 by 1990s and the production of 1 ton of steel by 1990 took only 3,7 man hours instead of 12 man hours in 1980. The government believed that privatisation would increase efficiency and economic freedom would encourage private initiative. A lot of big publicly owned production and service companies such as British Telecommunications, British Gas, British Airways, Rolls Royce and even British regional Water Authorities were sold into private hands. Britain began to turn into a country of shareholders. Between 1979 and 1992 the proportion of the population owning shares increased from 7 % to 24%. The Conservative government reduced the income tax from 33% to 25% as an incentive in production. This did not lead to any loss of revenue, since at the lower rates fewer people tried to avoid tax. At the same time the government doubled the VAT on goods and services to 15%. Today it is 17%. Small business began to increase rapidly. In 1984 for example there was a total of 1.4 million small business though including “the black economy” the figure was nearer to million. Proportionately, however, there were 50% more of them in West Germany and the United States and about twice more in France and Japan. Many small businesses fail to survive mainly as a result of poor management and also because compared with other European Community Britain offers the least encouraging conditions. But small businesses are important because they can grow into big ones and because they provide over half of the new jobs. It is particularly important because unemployment in Great Britain rose to nearly 2.5 million people and a lot of jobs are part-time. Energy is a major component of the economy, which depended mainly on coal production until 1975, began to rely on oil and gas discoveries in the north sea. Coal still remains the single most important source of energy, in spite of its relative decline as an industry, so oil and coal each account for about one third of total energy consumption in Britain. Over a number of years British policy makers promoted the idea of energy coming of different sources. One of them was nuclear energy as a clean and safe solution to energy needs. In fact Britain constructed the world's first large scale nuclear plant in 1956. However, there were a lot of public worries after the US disaster at Three Miles Island and the Soviet disaster in Chernobyl. Also nuclear research and safe technology is proved to be very expensive - by 1990 the real commercial cost of nuclear plant was twice as high that of a coal power station. Renewable energy sources such as wind or solar energy, are planned to provide 1% of the national energy requirements in the year 2000. Research and development (R&D) in Britain are Mainly directed towards immediate practical problems. In fact British companies spend less on R&D than any European competitors. At the end of the 1980's, for example 71% of German companies were spending more than 5% of their annual revenue on R & D compared with only 28% of British companies. As a result Britain has been automating more slowly than her rivals. In fact it may be the consequence of Margaret Thatcher's views on public spending which includes medical service, social spending, education and R&D. “The Iron lady” argued that “if our objective is to have a prosperous and expanding economy, we must recognise that high public spending kills growth of industry”, as money is taken from the productive sector (industry) to be transferred to unproductive part of it. As a result in the 80's only 6% of Britain's labour had a university degree against 18% in America, 13% in Japan and 10% in Germany. Technical education has always been compared with Britain's major competitors. According to government study “ mechanical engineering is low and production engineers are regarded as the Cinderella of the profession”. Very few school leavers received vocational training. Since 1980's among university graduates the tendency has been to go from the civil service to merchant banking, rather than industry. And according to analysts resulted from the long-standing cultural roots. Public school leavers considered themselves “gentlemen” too long to adjust fast to the changes of time. Efforts are now taken by the labour government to boost technical and enterprise skills in schools. The 1999 Prebudget report outlined a 10 million pounds for the purpose. Despite the favourable effect of “Thatcherism” Britain's economic problems in the 1990s seemed to be difficult. Manufacturing was more efficient but Britain's balance of payments was unhealthy, imports of manufacturing goods rose by 40%, and British exports could hardly compete with those of its competitors. Car workers in Germany, for instance, could produce a Ford Escort in help the time taken in Britain. In the 90's among the European countries British average annual productivity per worker took the 6th place. The revenue softened the social problems but distracted Britain from investing more into industry. Many analysts thought that much more should have been invested into engineering production, managerial and marketing before the North Sea oil declined. The Labour government undertakes to improve the situation. In his Pre-budget report on 9 November 1999 the Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown set out new economic ambitions for the next decade. Under them Britain will raise its productivity faster than its competitors to close the productivity gap and a majority of Britain's school and college leavers will go on to higher education. In the 80s British companies invested heavily abroad while foreign investments in Britain increased too. Today in a speech in Tokyo on 6 September1999 the Foreign Secretary Robin Cook said that “Britain is a chosen country for more investment from Japan than anywhere else in Europe and more than thousand companies operate in the U. K.” Mr. Cook added that the huge European Market of 370 million people was “the largest single market in the world, a market that is set to expand even further with the arrival of new member states”. In fact he said investment in Britain is the highest bridge into Europe.

Government and Industry.

The Department of Trade and Industry has specified its objectives for industrial policy as:

-working for trade liberalisation;

-promoting British exports;

-stimulating innovation;

-improving the flow of information to business;

-encouraging competition;

-working towards a light but effective framework of market regulation;

-reducing administrative burdens on business;

-consulting business and consumers when developing policy; and

-helping the less well-off regions.

Small Firms

Small businesses employ more than a third of the private sector workforce and are responsible for one-sixth of total turnover. The Government provides financial assistance and guidance to help with problems affecting small companies.

Inward Investment

Britain is considered an attractive location for inward investment, because of its membership of the EC and proximity to other European markets, And low corporate and personal taxation. Foreign-owned firms are offered the same incentives by the Government as British-owned ones.

Regulation of Markets

While preferring to let markets operate as freely as possible, the Government recognises that intervention is sometimes needed. Hence, it regulates monopolies, mergers, anti-competitive practices, restrictive trade practices, and resale price maintenance. In 1991 six monopoly situations were reported on and 185 mergers qualified for investigation.

Education and Training

The Government takes steps to see that education and training are broadly based and that people of all ages can acquire relevant knowledge and skills. Industrial and commercial matters are being given a more prominent place in school and post-school curricula, and business people are playing a bigger role in the management of educational institutions.

The Government has established a network of business-led local bodies to supervise training, education and enterprise programmes on its behalf.

Public Finance.

Central government raises money from individuals and companies through direct and indirect taxation. It spends money on goods and services, such as health and defence, and as payments to people, for instance, social security.

The main sources of revenue are personal income tax, corporation tax, petroleum revenue tax, inheritance tax, capital gains tax, valued added tax (VAT), and customs and excise duties.

Other sources include National Insurance contributions, vehicle excise duty and local taxes on people and businesses.

Industrial Sectors.

In some sectors of the economy, a small number of large companies are responsible for a sizeable percentage of total production, notably in the vehicle, aerospace and transport equipment industries. Private business concerns account for the greater part of activity in agriculture, manufacturing, construction, distribution, and financial and miscellaneous service sectors. Over half of companies' funds for investment are internally generated. Banks are the chief source of external finance, although firms are turning increasingly to equity finance.

Around 250 British industrial companies each have an annual turnover of more than $500 million. British Petroleum (BP) is the eleventh largest industrial grouping in the world and the second largest in Europe. Five British firms are among the leading 25 European Community companies.

The ten largest manufacturing concerns are BAT Industries (tobacco products, food, etc), Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), Grand Metropolitan (food, drink, etc), British Aerospace, Unilever (chemicals), Hanson Trust (various), Ford, General Electric Company (GEC-electronics), British Steel, and SmithKline Beecham (pharmaceuticals).

In 1991 the largest output within manufacturing was in electrical and instrument engineering ($13,700 million); followed by food, drink and tobacco ($13,600 million); mechanical engineering ($12,600 million); paper, printing and publishing ($11,600 million); and chemicals and synthetic fibres ($10,800 million).

The average manufacturing company is fairly small. Four-fifths employ fewer than 20 people. These make up 10 per cent of the manufacturing workforce. Businesses employing more than 1,000 people, 0.4 per cent of all businesses, account for 55 per cent of employees.

Power Generation

Britain has the largest energy resources of any EC country. Almost all the country's energy is provided by oil, natural gas and coal. The electricity supply and gas industries have been privatised, with gas increasingly used to produce electricity in combined cycle gas turbine power stations. Around 20 per cent of electricity is supplied by nuclear power stations.

British companies sell a vast range of plant and equipment to the energy industries.

Offshore Industries

Britain is the world's ninth largest oil producer and the fifth largest gas producer. Developing North Sea oil and gas has created a huge support industry offering equipment and services to oil and gas companies at home and abroad.

The two leading British oil companies are BP and Shell (the latter is part Dutch). The offshore services industry recorded orders for development work worth $6,000 million in 1991, nearly 80 per cent of which went to British firms.

Mineral and Metal Products

Producing about 80 per cent of Britain's crude steel, British Steel is the fourth biggest steel company in the Western world.

Just under half of total output is exported. The major areas of steel production and processing are in Wales, northern and eastern England, and the English Midlands.

In addition to its large output of non-ferrous metals and their alloys, like aluminium and copper, Britain is also a major producer of specialised alloys for the aerospace, electronic, petrochemical, nuclear and other fuel industries. Titanium and titanium alloys, for example, are used in aircraft production. The ceramics industry manufactures domestic pottery, sanitaryware and tiles. Britain is the world's leading manufacturer and exporter of fine bone china.

Chemicals and Synthetic Fibres

Britain's chemical industry is the third largest in Western Europe. The country's fourth biggest manufacturing industry, it exports nearly 50 per cent of production, making it Britain's biggest single export earner. The most rapid growth in recent years has been in pharmaceuticals, pesticides and cosmetics. ICI is the fourth largest chemical company in the world and one of Britain's largest exporting companies.

The most important products in the organic chemicals range are ethylene, benzene and propylene. A substantial proportion of world research and development in agrochemicals is conducted in Britain. Notable British discoveries include pyrethroid insecticides, ICI's diquat and paraquat herbicides, systemic fungicides and aphicides, and genetically engineered microbial pesticides.

Much of inorganic production consists of relatively simple bulk chemicals, such as sulphuric acid, serving as basic materials for industry.

Expansion in the plastics sector recently has been mainly in thermoplastics. ICI manufactured the world's first biodegradable thermoplastic, Biopol, used as a slow release agent for drugs and herbicides, and for making non-polluting bottles and films. ICI is the word's largest paint producer.

The pharmaceutical industry's trade surplus of $1,280 million in 1991 was the second largest of all manufacturing sectors. Employing over 87,000 people directly, pharmaceuticals supports employment for a quarter of a million others in related activities. Britain is the world's fourth largest exporter of medicines, with British firms making three of the world's ten best-selling medicines, including Glaxo's ulcer treatment Zantac and ICI's beta-blocker Tenormin. Retrovir is an approved treatment for HIV infection developed by Britain's Wellcome Foundation.

Britain is active in biotechnology research and has made major advances in the development of drugs such as human insulin and genetically-engineered vaccines.

Mechanical Engineering and Metal Goods

Major products include plant and machinery for industries such as chemicals, power and water, as well as fabricated steelwork for bridges, buildings and industrial installations. Britain is among the Western word's biggest producers of tractors. Almost all the output of machine tools is purchased by domestic industries. Most sales of textile machinery are to export markets. Overseas orders for mining machinery and tunnelling equipment are also substantial.

Electrical, Electronic and Instrument Engineering

An extensive range of computer hardware systems and associated equipment and software is produced in Britain. Amstrad is Britain's best-selling personal computer firm. Several leading overseas manufacturers - such as ICL, IBM, Unisys and Compaq - have manufacturing plants in Britain.

British firms and research bodies have been active in developing new semiconductor materials like gallium arsenide, which can help computers work much faster.

British Telecom (BT) is the main customer for communications network equipment. Supported by a technically advanced cable industry, it has led in the development of optical fibre communications systems.

Firms such as GEG and Oxford Instruments make sophisticated electronic medical equipment, for example, ultrasound scanners.

Motor Vehicles

The present recession has hit the motor vehicles industry particularly hard. Car output is dominated by Rover (which is British), Ford, Vauxhall, Pegeot Talbot and Nissan. Two other Japanese manufacturers have also established themselves in Britain - Honda and Toyota. The motor components industry, consisting of over 2,000 firms, is an important employer.

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