BRITISH MONARCHY AND ITS INFLUENCE UPON GOVERNMENTAL INSTITUTIONS

part, "the strumpet" was eventually referred to as among "the most

illustrious of women", and Eadwig, in his short reign, was generous in

making grants to the church and other religious institutions. He died,

possibly of the Wessex family ailment, when he was only 20.

EDGAR (959-975)

Edgar, king in Mercia and the Danelaw from 957, succeeded his brother as

king of the English on Edwy's death in 959 - a death which probably

prevented civil war breaking out between the two brothers. Edgar was a firm

and capable ruler whose power was acknowledged by other rulers in Britain,

as well as by Welsh and Scottish kings. Edgar's late coronation in 973 at

Bath was the first to be recorded in some detail; his queen Aelfthryth was

the first consort to be crowned queen of England.

Edgar was the patron of a great monastic revival which owed much to his

association with Archbishop Dunstan. New bishoprics were created,

Benedictine monasteries were reformed and old monastic sites were re-

endowed with royal grants, some of which were of land recovered from the

Vikings.

In the 970s and in the absence of Viking attacks, Edgar - a stern judge -

issued laws which for the first time dealt with Northumbria (parts of which

were in the Danelaw) as well as Wessex and Mercia. Edgar's coinage was

uniform throughout the kingdom. A more united kingdom based on royal

justice and order was emerging; the Monastic Agreement (c.970) praised

Edgar as 'the glorious, by the grace of Christ illustrious king of the

English and of the other peoples dwelling within the bounds of the island

of Britain'. After his death on 8 July 975, Edgar was buried at Glastonbury

Abbey, Somerset.

EDWARD II «THE MARTYR» (975-979)

The sudden death of Edgar at the age of 33 led to a succession dispute

between rival factions supporting his sons Edward and Ethelred. The elder

son Edward was murdered in 978 at Corfe Castle, Dorset, by his seven-year-

old half-brother's supporters.

ETHELRED II «THE UNREADY» (979-1013 AND 1014-1016)

Ethelred, the younger son of Edgar, became king at the age of seven

following the murder of his half-brother Edward II in 978 at Corfe Castle,

Dorset, by Edward's own supporters.

For the rest of Ethelred's rule (reigned 978-1016), his brother became a

posthumous rallying point for political unrest; a hostile Church

transformed Edward into a royal martyr. Known as the Un-raed or 'Unready'

(meaning 'no counsel', or that he was unwise), Ethelred failed to win or

retain the allegiance of many of his subjects. In 1002, he ordered the

massacre of all Danes in England to eliminate potential treachery.

Not being an able soldier, Ethelred defended the country against

increasingly rapacious Viking raids from the 980s onwards by diplomatic

alliance with the duke of Normandy in 991 (he later married the duke's

daughter Emma) and by buying off renewed attacks by the Danes with money

levied through a tax called the Danegeld. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1006

was dismissive: 'in spite of it all, the Danish army went about as it

pleased'. By 1012, 48,000 pounds of silver was being paid in Danegeld to

Danes camped in London.

In 1013, Ethelred fled to Normandy when the powerful Viking Sweyn of

Denmark dispossessed him. Ethelred returned to rule after Sweyn's death in

1014, but died himself in 1016.

SWEYN (1013-1014)

The son of a Danish king, Sweyn 'Forkbeard' began conquering territory in

England in 1003, effectively devastating much of southern and midland

England. The English nobility became so disillusioned with their existing

king, Ethelred 'The Unready', that they acknowledged Sweyn as king in 1013.

Sweyn's reign was short, as he died in 1014, but his son Canute the Great

soon returned and reclaimed control of England.

EDMUND II, IRONSIDE (1016)

Edmund was King of England for only a few months. After the death of his

father, Жthelred II, in April 1016, Edmund led the defense of the city of

London against the invading Knut Sveinsson (Canute), and was proclaimed

king by the Londoners. Meanwhile, the Witan (Council), meeting at

Southampton, chose Canute as King. After a series of inconclusive military

engagements, in which Edmund performed brilliantly and earned the nickname

"Ironside", he defeated the Danish forces at Oxford, Kent, but was routed

by Canute's forces at Ashingdon, Essex. A subsequent peace agreement was

made, with Edmund controlling Wessex and Canute controlling Mercia and

Northumbria. It was also agreed that whoever survived the other would take

control of the whole realm. Unfortunately for Edmund, he died in November,

1016, transferring the Kingship of All England completely to Canute.

CANUTE «THE GREAT» (1016-1035)

Son of Sweyn, Canute became undisputed King of England in 1016, and his

rivals (Ethelred's surviving sons and Edmund's son) fled abroad. In 1018,

the last Danegeld of 82,500 pounds was paid to Canute. Ruthless but

capable, Canute consolidated his position by marrying Ethelred's widow Emma

(Canute's first English partner - the Church did not recognise her as his

wife - was set aside, later appointed regent of Norway). During his reign,

Canute also became King of Denmark and Norway; his inheritance and

formidable personality combined to make him overlord of a huge northern

empire.

During his inevitable absences in Scandinavia, Canute used powerful English

and Danish earls to assist in England's government - English law and

methods of government remained unchanged.

A second-generation Christian for reasons of politics as well as faith,

Canute went on pilgrimage to Rome in 1027-8. (It was allegedly Christian

humility which made him reject his courtiers' flattery by demonstrating

that even he could not stop the waves; later hostile chroniclers were to

claim it showed madness.)

Canute was buried at Winchester. Given that there was no political or

governmental unity within his empire, it failed to survive owing to discord

between his sons by two different queens - Harold Harefoot (reigned 1035-

40) and Harthacnut (reigned 1040-42) - and the factions led by the semi-

independent Earls of Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex.

HAROLD HAREFOOT (1035-1040)

Harold Harefoot was the son of Canute and his first wife, Elfgifu. The

brothers began by sharing the kingdom of England after their father's death

- Harold Harefoot becoming king in Mercia and Northumbria, and Harthacanute

king of Wessex. During the absence of Hardicanute in Denmark, his other

kingdom, Harold Harefoot became effective sole ruler. On his death in 1040,

the kingdom of England fell to Hardicanute alone.

HARDICANUTE (1035-1042)

Harthacnut was the son of Canute and his second wife, Emma, the widow of

Ethelred II. His father intended Hardicanute to become king of the English

in preference to his elder brother Harold Harefoot, but he nearly lost his

chance of this when he became preoccupied with affairs in Denmark, of which

he was also king. Instead, Canute's eldest son, Harold Harefoot, became

king of England as a whole. In 1039 Hardicanute eventually set sail for

England, arriving to find his brother dead and himself king.

EDWARD III, THE CONFESSOR (1042-66 AD)

The penultimate Anglo-Saxon king, Edward was the oldest son of Жthelred

II and Emma. He had gone to Normandy in 1013, when his father and mother

had fled from England. He stayed there during the reign of Canute and, at

his death in 1035, led an abortive attempt to capture the crown for

himself. He was recalled, for some reason, to the court of Hardicanute, his

half-brother.

Canute had placed the local control of the shires into the hands of

several powerful earls: Leofric of Mercia (Lady Godiva's husband), Siward

of Northumbria and Godwin of Wessex, the most formidable of all. Through

Godwin's influence, Edward took the throne at the untimely death of

Hardicanute in 1042. In 1045, he married Godwin's only daughter, Edith.

Resulting from the connections made during Edward's years in Normandy, he

surrounded himself with his Norman favorites and was unduly influenced by

them. This Norman "affinity" produced great displeasure among the Saxon

nobles. The anti-Norman faction was led by (who else?) Godwin of Wessex and

his son, Harold Godwinsson, took every available opportunity to undermine

the kings favorites. Edward sought to revenge himself on Godwin by

insulting his own wife and Godwin's daughter, Edith, and confining her to

the monastery of Wherwell. Disputes also arose over the issue of royal

patronage and Edward's inclination to reward his Norman friends.

A Norman, Robert Champart, who had been Bishop of London, was made

Archbishop of Canterbury by Edward in 1051, a promotion that displeased

Godwin immensely. The Godwins were banished from the kingdom after staging

an unsuccessful rebellion against the king but returned, landing an

invasionary force in the south of England in 1052. They received great

popular support, and in the face of this, the king was forced to restore

the Godwins to favor in 1053.

Edward's greatest achievement was the construction of a new cathedral,

where virtually all English monarchs from William the Conqueror onward

would be crowned. It was determined that the minster should not be built in

London, and so a place was found to the west of the city (hence

"Westminster"). The new church was consecrated at Christmas, 1065, but

Edward could not attend due to illness.

On his deathbed, Edward named Harold as his successor, instead of the

legitimate heir, his grandson, Edgar the Жtheling. The question of

succession had been an issue for some years and remained unsettled at

Edward's death in January, 1066. It was neatly resolved, however, by

William the Conqueror, just nine months later.

There is some question as to what kind of person Edward was. After his

death, he was the object of a religious cult and was canonized in 1161, but

that could be viewed as a strictly political move. Some say, probably

correctly, that he was a weak, but violent man and that his reputation for

saintliness was overstated, possibly a sham perpetrated by the monks of

Westminster in the twelfth century. Others seem to think that he was deeply

religious man and a patient and peaceable ruler.

HAROLD II (1066)

On Edward's death, the King's Council (the Witenagemot) confirmed

Edward's brother-in-law Harold, Earl of Wessex, as King. With no royal

blood, and fearing rival claims from William Duke of Normandy and the King

of Norway, Harold had himself crowned in Westminster Abbey on 6 January

1066, the day after Edward's death. During his brief reign, Harold showed

he was an outstanding commander.

In September, Harald Hardrada of Norway (aided by Harold's alienated

brother Tostig, Earl of Northumbria) invaded England and was defeated by

Harold at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near York. Hardrada's army had

invaded using over 300 ships; so many were killed that only 25 ships were

needed to transport the survivors home.

Meanwhile, William, Duke of Normandy (who claimed that Harold had

acknowledged him in 1064 as Edward's successor) had landed in Sussex.

Harold rushed south and, on 14 October 1066, his army of some 7,000

infantry was defeated on the field of Senlac near Hastings. Harold was hit

in the eye by an arrow and cut down by Norman swords.

An abbey was later built, in 1070, to fulfil a vow made by William I, and

its high altar was placed on the spot where Harold fell. The ruins of

Battle Abbey still remain with a stone slab marking where Harold died.

THE NORMANS

The Normans came to govern as a result of one of the most famous battles

in English history, the Battle of Hastings in 1066. From 1066 to 1154 four

kings ruled. The Domesday Book, that great source of English landholding,

was published, the forests were extended, the Exchequer was founded and a

start was made on the Tower of London. In religious affairs, the Gregorian

reform movement gathered pace and forced concessions, while the machinery

of government developed to support the country while Henry was fighting

abroad. Meanwhile, the social landscape was altered, as the Norman

aristocracy came to prominence. Many of the nobles struggled to keep a hold

on both Normandy and England, as divided rule meant the threat of conflict.

This was the case when William the Conqueror died. His eldest son,

Robert, became Duke of Normandy, while the next youngest, William, became

king of England. Their younger brother Henry would become king on William

II's death. The uneasy divide continued until Henry captured and imprisoned

his elder brother.

The question of the succession continued to weigh heavily over the

remainder of the period. Henry's son died, and his nominated heir Matilda

was denied the throne by her cousin, Henry's nephew, Stephen. There then

followed a period of civil war. Matilda married Geoffrey Plantagenet of

Anjou, who took control of Normandy. The duchy was therefore separated from

England once again.

A compromise was eventually reached whereby the son of Matilda and

Geoffrey would be heir to the English crown, while Stephen's son would

inherit his baronial lands. All this meant that in 1154 Henry II would

ascend to the throne as the first undisputed King in over 100 years - proof

of the dynastic uncertainty of the Norman period.

THE CONTINENTAL DYNASTIES

1066 - 1216

HAROLD BLUETOOTH,

King of Denmark

Gunhilda of = SWEYN FORKBEARD

Styrbjorn = Thyra

Poland

Richard I, Duke of

Sweden

of Normandy

Thorgils Sprakalegg

Elgiva of (1) = CANUTE = (2) Emma, widow of Judith

= Richard II,

Northampton (1016–1035) ATHELRED II

daughter of Duke of Gytha =

Godwin,

Conan I Normandy

Earl of

Wessex

HAROLD HARDICANUTE

HAREFOOT (1040–1042)

Robert I = Herlиve

(1035–1040)

Duke of

Normandy

HAROLD

II EDWARD THE=Eadgyth

(1066)

CONFESSOR

(1042–1066)

WILLIAM I

= Matilda, dau. of

THE CONQUEROR

Baldwin V, Count

(1066–1087)

of Flanders

WILLIAM II

Adela = Stephen, Adela of =

HENRY I,

(1087–1100)

Count of Louvain

(1100–1135)

Blois

STEPHEN

Matilda = Geoffrey, Count

(1135–1154)

of Anjou and Maine

HENRY II =

Eleanor of

(1154–1189)

Aquitaine, divorced

wife of LOUIS VII,

King of

France

RICHARD I JOHN

= Isabella, dau. of

(1189–1199) (1199–1216)

Count of

Angoulкme

HENRY III

(1216–1272)

WILLIAM I «THE CONQUEROR» (1066-1087)

Born around 1028, William was the illegitimate son of Duke Robert I of

Normandy, and Herleve (also known as Arlette), daughter of a tanner in

Falaise. Known as 'William the Bastard' to his contemporaries, his

illegitimacy shaped his career when he was young. On his father's death in

1035, William was recognised by his family as the heir - an exception to

the general rule that illegitimacy barred succession. His great uncle

looked after the Duchy during William's minority, and his overlord, King

Henry I of France, knighted him at the age of 15. From 1047 onwards,

William successfully dealt with rebellion inside Normandy involving his

kinsmen and threats from neighbouring nobles, including attempted invasions

by his former ally King Henry I of France in 1054 (the French forces were

defeated at the Battle of Mortemer) and 1057. William's military successes

and reputation helped him to negotiate his marriage to Mathilda, daughter

of Count Baldwin V of Flanders. At the time of his invasion of England,

William was a very experienced and ruthless military commander, ruler and

administrator who had unified Normandy and inspired fear and respect

outside his duchy. William's claim to the English throne was based on his

assertion that, in 1051, Edward the Confessor had promised him the throne

(he was a distant cousin) and that Harold II - having sworn in 1064 to

uphold William's right to succeed to that throne - was therefore a usurper.

Furthermore, William had the support of Emperor Henry IV and papal

approval. William took seven months to prepare his invasion force, using

some 600 transport ships to carry around 7,000 men (including 2,000-3,000

cavalry) across the Channel. On 28 September 1066, with a favourable wind,

William landed unopposed at Pevensey and, within a few days, raised

fortifications at Hastings. Having defeated an earlier invasion by the King

of Norway at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near York in late September,

Harold undertook a forced march south, covering 250 miles in some nine days

to meet the new threat, gathering inexperienced reinforcements to replenish

his exhausted veterans as he marched. At the Battle of Senlac (near

Hastings) on 14 October, Harold's weary and under-strength army faced

William's cavalry (part of the forces brought across the Channel) supported

by archers. Despite their exhaustion, Harold's troops were equal in number

(they included the best infantry in Europe equipped with their terrible two-

handled battle axes) and they had the battlefield advantage of being based

on a ridge above the Norman positions. The first uphill assaults by the

Normans failed and a rumour spread that William had been killed; William

rode among the ranks raising his helmet to show he was still alive. The

battle was close-fought: a chronicler described the Norman counter-attacks

and the Saxon defence as 'one side attacking with all mobility, the other

withstanding as though rooted to the soil'. Three of William's horses were

killed under him. William skilfully co-ordinated his archers and cavalry,

both of which the English forces lacked. During a Norman assault, Harold

was killed - hit by an arrow and then mowed down by the sword of a mounted

knight. Two of his brothers were also killed. The demoralised English

forces fled. (In 1070, as penance, William had an abbey built on the site

of the battle, with the high altar occupying the spot where Harold fell.

The ruins of Battle Abbey, and the town of Battle, which grew up around it,

remain.) William was crowned on Christmas Day 1066 in Westminster Abbey.

Three months later, he was confident enough to return to Normandy leaving

two joint regents (one of whom was his half-brother Odo, Bishop of Bayeux,

who was later to commission the Bayeux Tapestry) behind to administer the

kingdom. However, it took William six years to consolidate his conquest,

and even then he had to face constant plotting and fighting on both sides

of the Channel. In 1068, Harold's sons raided the south-west coast of

England (dealt with by William's local commanders), and there were

uprisings in the Welsh Marches, Devon and Cornwall. William appointed earls

who, in Wales and in all parts of the kingdom, undertook to guard the

threatened frontiers and maintain internal security in return for land. In

1069, the Danes, in alliance with Prince Edgar the Aetheling (Ethelred's

great-grandson) and other English nobles, invaded the north and took York.

Taking personal charge, and pausing only to deal with the rising at

Stafford, William drove the Danes back to their ships on the Humber. In a

harsh campaign lasting into 1070, William systematically devastated Mercia

and Northumbria to deprive the Danes of their supplies and prevent recovery

of English resistance. Churches and monasteries were burnt, and

agricultural land was laid to waste, creating a famine for the unarmed and

mostly peasant population which lasted at least nine years. Although the

Danes were bribed to leave the north, King Sweyn of Denmark and his ships

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